Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on Biological Parameters of the Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphidiae) and Associated Productivity Losses in Common Globe Amaranth

Authors
A. Hosseini 1
M. Hosseini 1
M. Goldani 2
J. Karimi 1
H. Madadi 3
1 Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran.
2 Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran.
3 Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Bu Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Islamic Republic of Iran.
Abstract
Reducing nitrogen status of floriculture plants is an effective tactic in pest management by decreasing host plant quality. Life table parameters and population growth rate of Aphis craccivora(Hemiptera: Aphidiae), as well as cosmetic and qualitative parameters losses associated with aphid infestation were evaluated in relation to N fertilization levels on Gomphrena globosa, under greenhouse condition. Four N fertilization levels (0, 30, 60, and 100% of recommended 2 kg m-3) were used. The results indicated that aphid’s intrinsic rate of natural increase on plants fertilized with 100% of the recommended N level was the highest. Abundance and population growth rate of aphid also positively correlated with N fertilization levels. The interactive effect of aphid population and N fertility significantly affected growth parameters of the plants. In the absence of aphid, plant yield improved linearly with increasing N levels. However, aphid population highly decreased shoot to root ratio and the number of flowers in plants fertilized with 100% of the recommended N level. According to our findings, fine-tuning fertility to reduce A. craccivora population is a steadfast tactic to produce marketable globe amaranth ornamental plant.

Keywords

1. Alfonsina, S. 2008. Aphididae (Hemiptera) on Ornamental Plants in Cordoba (Argentina). Rev. Soc. Entomol. Argent., 67: 49–56.
2. Aqueel, M. A. and Leather, S. R. 2011. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Growth and Survival of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) and Sitobion avenae (F.) (Hom.: Aphididae) on Different Wheat Cultivars. Crop Prot., 30: 216–221
3. Bachman, G. 2011, April 11. Tough Gomphrena Makes Good Addition to Gardens. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
4. Benary, E. [Internet]. 2011. Gomphrena globosa. Benary, Retrieved from April 15 2013 from: www.benary.com
5. Bentz, J. and Larew, H. 1992. Ovipositional Preference and Nymphal Performance of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Dendranthema grandiflora (Tzvelev) Under Different Fertilizer Regimes. J. Econ. Entomol., 85: 514–517.
6. Bentz, J. A., Reeves, J., Barbosa, P. and Francis, B. 1995. The Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer Effect on Selection, Acceptance, and Suitability of Euphorbia pulcherrima (Euphorbiaceae) as a Host plant to Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Environ. Entomol., 24: 40–45.
7. Birch, L. 1948. Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase of an Insect Population. J. Anim. Ecol., 17: 15– 26.
8. Byrne, D. N., Cohen, A. C. and Draeger, E. A. 1990. Water Uptake From Plant Tissue By the Egg Pedicel of the Greenhouse Whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Canad. J. Zool., 68: 1193–1195.
9. Carey, J. R. 1993. Applied Demography for Biologists with Special Emphasis on Insects. Oxford University Press, New York, 206 PP.
10. Chau, A., Heinz, K. M. and Davies, F. T. 2005. Influences of Fertilization on Population Abundance, Distribution and Control of Frankliniella occidentalis on Chrysanthemum. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 117: 27 –39.
11. Chow, A., Chau, A. and Heinz, K. M. 2009. Reducing Fertilization For Cut Roses: Effect on Crop Productivity and Twospotted Spider Mite Abundance, Distribution, and Management. Hort. Entomol., 102: 1896 –1907.
12. Chow, A., Chau, A. and Heinz, K. M. 2011. Reducing Fertilization: A Management Tactic Against Western Flower Thrips on Roses. J. Appl. Entomol., 136: 506–529.
13. Davies, F. T. J., He, C.J., Chau, A., Heinz, K. M. and Cartmill, A. D. 2004. Fertility Affects Susceptibility of Chrysanthemum to Cotton Aphid (Aphis gossypii), Influence on Plant Growth, Photosynthesis, Ethylene Evolution and Herbivore Abundance. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 129: 344– 353.
14. Dinda, B., Ghosh, B., Achari, B., Arima, S., Sato, N. and Harigaya, Y. 2006. Chemical Constituents of Gomphrena globosa. Nat. Pro. Sci., 12: 89– 93.
15. Douglas, A. E. 2006. Phloem–sap Feeding by Animals: Problems and Solutions. J. Exp. Bot., 57: 747–754.
16. Eliott, M. L., Broschat, T. K., Uchida, J. Y. and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of Ornamental Palm Diseases and Disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, 69 PP.
17. Elser, J. J., Fagan, W. F., Denno, R. F., Dobberfuhl, D. R., Folarin, A., Huberty, A., Interlandi, S., Kilham, S. S., McCauley, E., Schulz, K. L., Siemann, E. H. and Sterner, R. W. 2000. Nutritional Constraints in Terrestrial and Freshwater Food Webs. Nature, 408: 578–580.
18. Ferreres, F., Gil-Izquierdo, A., Valentão, P. and Andrade, B. P. 2011. Structural Characterization of Phenolics and Betacyanins in Gomphrena globosa by High-Performance Liquid Chromatographydiode Array Detection/Electrospray Ionization Multi-Stage Mass Spectrometry. Rap. Community Mass. Spectrom., 25: 3441–3446.
19. Fallahpour, F., Ghorbani, R., Nassiri Mahallati, M. and Hosseini, M. 2015. Demographic Prarameters of Lipaphis Erysimion Canola Cultivars under Different Nitrogen Fertilization Regimes. J. Agric. Sci. Tech. 17:35-47.
20. Ghasemi, Gh. M. and Kafi, M. 2007. Scientific and Practical Floriculture. Esfahan Golbon Press. (in Persian)
21. Hogendorp, B., Cloyd, R. and Swiader, J. 2006. Effect of Nitrogen Fertility on Reproduction and Development of Citrus Mealybug, Planococcus citri Risso (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), Feeding on Two Colors of Coleus, Solenostemon scutellarioides L. Codd. Environ. Entomol., 35: 201–211.
22. Hosseini, M., Ashouri, A., Enkegaard, A., Goldansaz, S. H., Nassiri Mahalati, M. and Hosseininaveh, V. 2010a. Performance and Population Growth Rate of the Cotton Aphid and Associated Yield Losses of Cucumber Under Different Nitrogen Fertilization Regimes. Int. J. Pest. Manag., 56: 127–137.
23. Hosseini, M., Ashouri, A., Enkegaard, A., Wolfgang, W. W., Goldansaz, S. H., Nassiri Mahalati, M. and Sarraf Moayeri, H. R. 2010b. Plant Quality Effects on Intraguild Predation Between Orius laevigatus Fieber (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Entomol. Exp. Appl., 135: 208 – 216.
24. Huang, J. S., Nelson, P. V., Bailey, D. A., Fonteno, W. C. and Mingis, N. C. 2002. Assessment of the Need for Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Sulfur Preplant Nutrients for Plug Seedling Growth. Hort. Sci., 37: 529–533.
25. Jauset, A. M., Sarasua, M. J., Avilla, R. and Albajes, R. 2000. Effect of Nitrogen Level Applied to Tomato on the Greenhouse Whitefly. Crop Prot., 19: 255–261.
26. Jones, C. E. 1984. AOAC Official Analytic Chemists. In: " Animal Feed ", (Eds.): Wiliams, S.. Arlington, VA, PP.155–156.
27. Jones, M. G. 1967. Observation on Two Races of the Groundnut Aphid, Aphis craccivora. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 10: 31–38.
28. Khan, M. and Port, G. 2008. Performance of Clones and Morphs of Two Cereal Aphids on Wheat Plants With High and Low Nitrogen Content. Entomol. Sci., 11: 159- 165.
29. Lovisolo, O. and Conti, M. 1966. Identification of an Aphid–transmitted Cowpea Mosaic Virus. Neth. J. Plant Path., 72: 265–269.
30. Maia, A. H. N., Luiz, A. J. B. and Campanhola, C. 2000. Statistical Inference on Associated Fertility Life Parameters Using Jackknife Technique: Computational Aspects. J. Econ. Entomol., 93: 511–518.
31. Mattson, W. J. J. 1980. Herbivory in Relation to Plant Nitrogen Content. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 119–161.
32. Mc Neill, S. and Southwood, T. R. E. 1978. Aspects of Plant and Animal Coevolution. In: "The Role of Nitrogen in the Development of Insect/Plant Relationships", (Eds.): Harborne, J. S.. Academic Press, London, PP. 77– 98.
33. Mengel, K. and Kirkby, E. A. 2001. Principles of Plant Nutrition. 5th Edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, USA.
34. Meyer, J. S., Ingersoll, C. G., McDonald, L. L. and Boyce, M. S. 1986. Estimating Uncertainly in Population Growth Rates: Jackknife vs. Bootstrap Techniques. Ecol., 67: 1156 –1166.
35. Minkenberg, O. P. J. M. and Fredrix, M. J. J. 1989. Preference and Performance of an Herbivorous Fly, Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae), on Tomato Plants Differing in Leaf Nitrogen. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America, 82: 350–354.
36. Obopile, M. 2006. Economic Threshold and Injury Levels for Control of Cowpea Aphid, Aphis craccivora L. (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Cowpea. Afr. Plant Prot., 12: 111–115.
37. Ponder, K. L., Pritchard, J., Harrington, R. and Bale, J. S. 2000. Difficulties in Location and Acceptance of Phloem Sap Combined With Reduced Concentration of Phloem Amino Acids Explain Lowered Performance of the Aphid Rhopalosiphum padi on Nitrogen Deficient Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Seedlings. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 97: 203-210.
38. Richards, L. A. 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. Handbook No. 60, USDA.
39. Rufino Arcanjo, D. D., Albuquerque, A. C., Neto, M. B., Resende Santana, L. C., Branco Silva, N. C., Moita, M. M. and Medeiros, M. 2011. Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of Cytotoxic, Antimicrobial and Cardiovascular Effects of Gomphrena globosa L. (Amaranthaceae). J. Med. Plants Res., 5: 2006–2010.
40. SAS Institute. 2003. SAS users guide: statistics. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.
41. Stafford, D. B., Tariq, M., Wright, D. J., Rossiter, J. T., Kazana, E., Leather, S. R., Ali, M. and Staley, J. T. 2012. Opposing Effects of Organic and Conventional Fertilizers on the Performance of a Generalist and a Specialist Aphid Species. Agric. For. Entomol., 14: 270-275.
42. Stavisky, J., Funderburk, J., Brodbeck, B. V. and Olson, S. M. 2002. Population Dynamics of Frankliniella spp. and Tomato Spotted Wilt Incidence as Influenced by Cultural Management Tactics in Tomato. J. Econ. Entomol., 95: 1216 –1221.
43. Tao, C. C. 1990. Aphid–Fauna of Taiwan Province, China: Taiwan Provincial Museum, Taipei.
44. Trdan, S., Milevoj, L., Žežline, I., Raspudič, E., Anđus, L., Vidrih, M., Bergant, K., Valič, N. and Žnidarčič, D. 2005. Feeding Damage by Onion Thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera, Thripidae), on Early White Cabbage Grown under Insecticide-Free Conditions. Afr. Entomol., 13(1): 85-95.
45. Trdan, S., Žnidarčič, D., Kač, M. and Vidrih, M. 2008. Yield of Early White Cabbage Grown under Mulch and Non-Mulch Conditions with Low Populations of Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindeman). Int. J. Pest. Manag., 54(4): 309-318.
46. Valladares, F., Gianoli, E. and Gomez, J. 2007. Ecological Limits to Plant Phenotypic plasticity. New Phytol., 176: 749–763.
47. Vehrs, S. L., Walker, G. P. and Parrella, M. P. 1992. Comparison of Population Growth Rate and Within–Plant Distribution Between Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) Reared on Potted Chrysanthemums. J. Econ. Entomol., 85: 799-807.
48. White, T. C. R. 1993. The Inadequate Environment: Nitrogen and the Abundance of Animals. New York, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
49. Žanić, K., Ban, D, Gotlin Čuljak, T., Goreta Ban, S., Dumičić, G., Haramija, J. and Žnidarčič, D., 2013. Aphid Populations (Hemiptera:Aphidoidea) Depend of Mulching in Watermelon Production in the Mediterranean Region of Croatia. Span. J. Agric. Res., 11(4): 1120-1128.
50. Žanić, K., Dumičić, G., Škaljac, M., Goreta Ban, S. and Urlić, B. 2011. The Effects of Nitrogen Rate and the Ratio of NO3-:NH4+ on Bemisia tabaci Populations in Hydroponic Tomato Crops. Crop. Protect., 30: 228-233.
51. Zehnder, C. B. and Hunter, M. D. 2008. Effect of Nitrogen Deposition on the Interaction Between an Aphid and Its Host Plant. Ecol. Entomol., 33: 24–30.

1.       Alfonsina, S. 2008. Aphididae (Hemiptera) on Ornamental Plants in Cordoba (Argentina). Rev. Soc. Entomol. Argent., 67: 49–56.
2.       Aqueel, M. A. and Leather, S. R. 2011. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Growth and Survival of Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) and Sitobion avenae (F.) (Hom.: Aphididae) on Different Wheat Cultivars. Crop Prot., 30: 216–221
3.       Bachman, G. 2011, April 11. Tough Gomphrena Makes Good Addition to Gardens. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
4.       Benary, E. [Internet]. 2011. Gomphrena globosa. Benary, Retrieved from April 15 2013 from: www.benary.com
5.       Bentz, J. and Larew, H. 1992. Ovipositional Preference and Nymphal Performance of Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Dendranthema grandiflora (Tzvelev) Under Different Fertilizer Regimes. J. Econ. Entomol., 85: 514–517.
6.       Bentz, J. A., Reeves, J., Barbosa, P. and Francis, B. 1995. The Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer Effect on Selection, Acceptance, and Suitability of Euphorbia pulcherrima (Euphorbiaceae) as a Host plant to Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Environ. Entomol., 24: 40–45.
7.       Birch, L. 1948. Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase of an Insect Population. J. Anim. Ecol., 17: 15– 26.
8.       Byrne, D. N., Cohen, A. C. and Draeger, E. A. 1990. Water Uptake From Plant Tissue By the Egg Pedicel of the Greenhouse Whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Canad. J. Zool., 68: 1193–1195.
9.       Carey, J. R. 1993. Applied Demography for Biologists with Special Emphasis on Insects. Oxford University Press, New York, 206 PP.
10.    Chau, A., Heinz, K. M. and Davies, F. T. 2005. Influences of Fertilization on Population Abundance, Distribution and Control of Frankliniella occidentalis on Chrysanthemum. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 117: 27 –39.
11.    Chow, A., Chau, A. and Heinz, K. M. 2009. Reducing Fertilization For Cut Roses: Effect on Crop Productivity and Twospotted Spider Mite Abundance, Distribution, and Management. Hort. Entomol., 102: 1896 –1907.
12.    Chow, A., Chau, A. and Heinz, K. M. 2011. Reducing Fertilization: A Management Tactic Against Western Flower Thrips on Roses. J. Appl. Entomol., 136: 506–529.
13.    Davies, F. T. J., He, C.J., Chau, A., Heinz, K. M. and Cartmill, A. D. 2004. Fertility Affects Susceptibility of Chrysanthemum to Cotton Aphid (Aphis gossypii), Influence on Plant Growth, Photosynthesis, Ethylene Evolution and Herbivore Abundance. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 129: 344– 353.
14.    Dinda, B., Ghosh, B., Achari, B., Arima, S., Sato, N. and Harigaya, Y. 2006. Chemical Constituents of Gomphrena globosa. Nat. Pro. Sci., 12: 89– 93.
15.    Douglas, A. E. 2006. Phloem–sap Feeding by Animals: Problems and Solutions. J. Exp. Bot., 57: 747–754.
16.    Eliott, M. L., Broschat, T. K., Uchida, J. Y. and Simone, G. W. 2004. Compendium of Ornamental Palm Diseases and Disorders. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, 69 PP.
17.    Elser, J. J., Fagan, W. F., Denno, R. F., Dobberfuhl, D. R., Folarin, A., Huberty, A., Interlandi, S., Kilham, S. S., McCauley, E., Schulz, K. L., Siemann, E. H. and Sterner, R. W. 2000. Nutritional Constraints in Terrestrial and Freshwater Food Webs. Nature, 408: 578–580.
18.    Ferreres, F., Gil-Izquierdo, A., Valentão, P. and Andrade, B. P. 2011. Structural Characterization of Phenolics and Betacyanins in Gomphrena globosa by High-Performance Liquid Chromatographydiode Array Detection/Electrospray Ionization Multi-Stage Mass Spectrometry. Rap. Community Mass. Spectrom., 25: 3441–3446.
19.    Fallahpour, F., Ghorbani, R., Nassiri Mahallati, M. and Hosseini, M. 2015. Demographic Prarameters of Lipaphis Erysimion Canola Cultivars under Different Nitrogen Fertilization Regimes. J. Agric. Sci. Tech. 17:35-47.
20.    Ghasemi, Gh. M. and Kafi, M. 2007. Scientific and Practical Floriculture. Esfahan Golbon Press. (in Persian)
21.    Hogendorp, B., Cloyd, R. and Swiader, J. 2006. Effect of Nitrogen Fertility on Reproduction and Development of Citrus Mealybug, Planococcus citri Risso (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), Feeding on Two Colors of Coleus, Solenostemon scutellarioides L. Codd. Environ. Entomol., 35: 201–211.
22.    Hosseini, M., Ashouri, A., Enkegaard, A., Goldansaz, S. H., Nassiri Mahalati, M. and Hosseininaveh, V. 2010a. Performance and Population Growth Rate of the Cotton Aphid and Associated Yield Losses of Cucumber Under Different Nitrogen Fertilization Regimes. Int. J. Pest. Manag., 56: 127–137.
23.    Hosseini, M., Ashouri, A., Enkegaard, A., Wolfgang, W. W., Goldansaz, S. H., Nassiri Mahalati, M. and Sarraf Moayeri, H. R. 2010b.Plant Quality Effects on Intraguild Predation Between Orius laevigatus Fieber (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) and Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Entomol. Exp. Appl., 135: 208 – 216.
24.    Huang, J. S., Nelson, P. V., Bailey, D. A., Fonteno, W. C. and Mingis, N. C. 2002. Assessment of the Need for Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Sulfur Preplant Nutrients for Plug Seedling Growth. Hort. Sci., 37: 529–533.
25.    Jauset, A. M., Sarasua, M. J., Avilla, R. and Albajes, R. 2000. Effect of Nitrogen Level Applied to Tomato on the Greenhouse Whitefly. Crop Prot., 19: 255–261.
26.    Jones, C. E. 1984. AOAC Official Analytic Chemists. In: " Animal Feed ", (Eds.): Wiliams, S.. Arlington, VA, PP.155–156.
27.    Jones, M. G. 1967. Observation on Two Races of the Groundnut Aphid, Aphis craccivora. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 10: 31–38.
28.    Khan, M. and Port, G. 2008. Performance of Clones and Morphs of Two Cereal Aphids on Wheat Plants With High and Low Nitrogen Content. Entomol. Sci., 11: 159- 165.
29.    Lovisolo, O. and Conti, M. 1966. Identification of an Aphid–transmitted Cowpea Mosaic Virus. Neth. J. Plant Path., 72: 265–269.
30.    Maia, A. H. N., Luiz, A. J. B. and Campanhola, C. 2000. Statistical Inference on Associated Fertility Life Parameters Using Jackknife Technique: Computational Aspects. J. Econ. Entomol., 93: 511–518.
31.    Mattson, W. J. J. 1980. Herbivory in Relation to Plant Nitrogen Content. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 119–161.
32.    Mc Neill, S. and Southwood, T. R. E. 1978. Aspects of Plant and Animal Coevolution. In: "The Role of Nitrogen in the Development of Insect/Plant Relationships", (Eds.): Harborne, J. S.. Academic Press, London, PP. 77– 98.
33.    Mengel, K. and Kirkby, E. A. 2001. Principles of Plant Nutrition. 5th Edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, USA.
34.    Meyer, J. S., Ingersoll, C. G., McDonald, L. L. and Boyce, M. S. 1986. Estimating Uncertainly in Population Growth Rates: Jackknife vs. Bootstrap Techniques. Ecol., 67: 1156 –1166.
35.    Minkenberg, O. P. J. M. and Fredrix, M. J. J. 1989. Preference and Performance of an Herbivorous Fly, Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae), on Tomato Plants Differing in Leaf Nitrogen. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America, 82: 350–354.
36.    Obopile, M. 2006. Economic Threshold and Injury Levels for Control of Cowpea Aphid, Aphis craccivora L. (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Cowpea. Afr. Plant Prot., 12: 111–115.
37.    Ponder, K. L., Pritchard, J., Harrington, R. and Bale, J. S. 2000. Difficulties in Location and Acceptance of Phloem Sap Combined With Reduced Concentration of Phloem Amino Acids Explain Lowered Performance of the Aphid Rhopalosiphum padi on Nitrogen Deficient Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Seedlings. Entomol. Exp. Appl., 97: 203-210.
38.    Richards, L. A. 1954. Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. Handbook No. 60, USDA.
39.    Rufino Arcanjo, D. D., Albuquerque, A. C., Neto, M. B., Resende Santana, L. C., Branco Silva, N. C., Moita, M. M. and Medeiros, M. 2011. Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of Cytotoxic, Antimicrobial and Cardiovascular Effects of Gomphrena globosa L. (Amaranthaceae). J. Med. Plants Res., 5: 2006–2010.
40.    SAS  Institute. 2003. SAS users guide: statistics. SAS Institute, Cary, NC.
41.    Stafford, D. B., Tariq, M., Wright, D. J., Rossiter, J. T., Kazana, E., Leather, S. R., Ali, M. and Staley, J. T. 2012. Opposing Effects of Organic and Conventional Fertilizers on the Performance of a Generalist and a Specialist Aphid Species. Agric. For. Entomol., 14: 270-275.
42.    Stavisky, J., Funderburk, J., Brodbeck, B. V. and Olson, S. M. 2002. Population Dynamics of Frankliniella spp. and Tomato Spotted Wilt Incidence as Influenced by Cultural Management Tactics in Tomato. J. Econ. Entomol., 95: 1216 –1221.
43.    Tao, C. C. 1990. Aphid–Fauna of Taiwan Province, China: Taiwan Provincial Museum, Taipei.
44.    Trdan, S., Milevoj, L., Žežline, I., Raspudič, E., Anđus, L., Vidrih, M., Bergant, K., Valič, N. and Žnidarčič, D. 2005. Feeding Damage by Onion Thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera, Thripidae), on Early White Cabbage Grown under Insecticide-Free Conditions. Afr. Entomol.,13(1): 85-95.
45.    Trdan, S., Žnidarčič, D., Kač, M. and Vidrih, M. 2008. Yield of Early White Cabbage Grown under Mulch and Non-Mulch Conditions with Low Populations of Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci Lindeman). Int. J. Pest. Manag., 54(4): 309-318.
46.    Valladares, F., Gianoli, E. and Gomez, J. 2007. Ecological Limits to Plant Phenotypic plasticity. New Phytol., 176: 749–763.
47.     Vehrs, S. L., Walker, G. P. and Parrella, M. P. 1992. Comparison of Population Growth Rate and Within–Plant Distribution Between Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) Reared on Potted Chrysanthemums. J. Econ. Entomol., 85: 799-807.
48.    White, T. C. R. 1993. The Inadequate Environment: Nitrogen and the Abundance of Animals. New York, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
49.    Žanić, K., Ban, D, Gotlin Čuljak, T., Goreta Ban, S., Dumičić, G., Haramija, J. and Žnidarčič, D., 2013. Aphid Populations (Hemiptera:Aphidoidea) Depend of Mulching in Watermelon Production in the Mediterranean Region of Croatia. Span. J. Agric. Res., 11(4): 1120-1128.
50.    Žanić, K., Dumičić, G., Škaljac, M., Goreta Ban, S. and Urlić, B. 2011. The Effects of Nitrogen Rate and the Ratio of NO3-:NH4+ on Bemisia tabaci Populations in Hydroponic Tomato Crops. Crop. Protect., 30: 228-233.
51.    Zehnder, C. B. and Hunter, M. D. 2008. Effect of Nitrogen Deposition on the Interaction Between an Aphid and Its Host Plant. Ecol. Entomol., 33: 24–30.
Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology
Volume 17, Issue 6
November and December 2015
Pages 1517-1528